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		<title>Knaster-Tarski Theorem</title>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 13 Nov 2009 23:50:59 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>XOO</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Mathematics]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[order theory]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Knaster-Tarski theorem is a simple but powerful fixpoint theorem in order theory. It could give a very elegant proof of Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem which states that if there are injections  and , there exists a bijection between A and B.
Theorem. Let L be a complete lattice and f be a order-preserving morphism from L to [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=1001&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>Knaster-Tarski theorem is a simple but powerful fixpoint theorem in order theory. It could give a very elegant proof of Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem which states that if there are injections <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f+%3A+A+%5Crightarrow+B&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f : A \rightarrow B' title='f : A \rightarrow B' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g+%3A+B+%5Crightarrow+A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g : B \rightarrow A' title='g : B \rightarrow A' class='latex' />, there exists a bijection between A and B.<span id="more-1001"></span></p>
<p><strong>Theorem. </strong>Let L be a complete lattice and f be a order-preserving morphism from L to L. The sup (join) of the set <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5C%7B+x+%5Cin+L+%3A+x+%5Cleq+f%28x%29+%5C%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\{ x \in L : x \leq f(x) \}' title='\{ x \in L : x \leq f(x) \}' class='latex' /> is the greast fixpoint of f.</p>
<p><strong>Proof.</strong> Let <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X+%3D++%5C%7B+x+%5Cin+L+%3A+x+%5Cleq+f%28x%29+%5C%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X =  \{ x \in L : x \leq f(x) \}' title='X =  \{ x \in L : x \leq f(x) \}' class='latex' />. Consider <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=s+%3D+%5Cbigvee+X&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='s = \bigvee X' title='s = \bigvee X' class='latex' />, we have <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cleq+s&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \leq s' title='x \leq s' class='latex' /> for all <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cin+X&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \in X' title='x \in X' class='latex' />, and thus <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cleq+f%28x%29+%5Cleq+f%28s%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \leq f(x) \leq f(s)' title='x \leq f(x) \leq f(s)' class='latex' /> which means that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28s%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(s)' title='f(s)' class='latex' /> is an upper bound of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X' title='X' class='latex' />, i.e. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=s+%5Cleq+f%28s%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='s \leq f(s)' title='s \leq f(s)' class='latex' />. However, since <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=s+%5Cleq+f%28s%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='s \leq f(s)' title='s \leq f(s)' class='latex' />, we also have <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28s%29+%5Cleq+f%28f%28s%29%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(s) \leq f(f(s))' title='f(s) \leq f(f(s))' class='latex' /> which satisfies the predicate of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X' title='X' class='latex' />. Hence, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28s%29+%5Cin+X&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(s) \in X' title='f(s) \in X' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28s%29+%5Cleq+s&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(s) \leq s' title='f(s) \leq s' class='latex' /> by definition. Finally, we thus have <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=s+%5Cleq+f%28s%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='s \leq f(s)' title='s \leq f(s)' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=s+%5Cgeq+f%28s%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='s \geq f(s)' title='s \geq f(s)' class='latex' />, so <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=s+%3D+f%28s%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='s = f(s)' title='s = f(s)' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>The part of greatestness is obvious. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CBox&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Box' title='\Box' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Now, we could simplify the proof of Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder between sets <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X%2C+Y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X, Y' title='X, Y' class='latex' /> by explicitly defining the construction of sequence of sets as a function from <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cmathcal%7BP%7D%28X%29+%5Crightarrow+%5Cmathcal%7BP%7D%28Y%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\mathcal{P}(X) \rightarrow \mathcal{P}(Y)' title='\mathcal{P}(X) \rightarrow \mathcal{P}(Y)' class='latex' />. However, we also generalise the process than we need.</p>
<p><strong>Theorem.</strong> Given two functions <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f+%3A+A+%5Crightarrow+B&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f : A \rightarrow B' title='f : A \rightarrow B' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g+%3A+B+%5Crightarrow+A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g : B \rightarrow A' title='g : B \rightarrow A' class='latex' />. There are disjoint sets <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X_1%2C+X_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X_1, X_2' title='X_1, X_2' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=Y_1%2C+Y_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='Y_1, Y_2' title='Y_1, Y_2' class='latex' /> with <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X+%3D+X_1+%5Ccup+X_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X = X_1 \cup X_2' title='X = X_1 \cup X_2' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=Y+%3D+Y_1+%5Ccup+Y_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='Y = Y_1 \cup Y_2' title='Y = Y_1 \cup Y_2' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28X_1%29+%3D+Y_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(X_1) = Y_1' title='f(X_1) = Y_1' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g%28Y_2%29+%3D+X_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g(Y_2) = X_2' title='g(Y_2) = X_2' class='latex' />.</p>
<p><strong>Proof.</strong> Consider <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X+%3D+X_1+%5Ccup+X_2+%3D+X_1+%5Ccup+%28g%28Y_2%29%29+%5CLeftrightarrow+X_1+%3D+X+%5Cbackslash+g%28Y_2%29+%3D+X+%5Cbackslash+g%28Y+%5Cbackslash+f%28X_1%29%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X = X_1 \cup X_2 = X_1 \cup (g(Y_2)) \Leftrightarrow X_1 = X \backslash g(Y_2) = X \backslash g(Y \backslash f(X_1))' title='X = X_1 \cup X_2 = X_1 \cup (g(Y_2)) \Leftrightarrow X_1 = X \backslash g(Y_2) = X \backslash g(Y \backslash f(X_1))' class='latex' /> which may give a hint that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=F%28S%29+%3D+X+%5Cbackslash+g%28Y+%5Cbackslash+f%28S%29%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='F(S) = X \backslash g(Y \backslash f(S))' title='F(S) = X \backslash g(Y \backslash f(S))' class='latex' /> works if it is order-preserving. However, it is obvious that as <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=S_1+%5Csubseteq+S_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='S_1 \subseteq S_2' title='S_1 \subseteq S_2' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=F%28S_1%29+%5Csubseteq+F%28S_2%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='F(S_1) \subseteq F(S_2)' title='F(S_1) \subseteq F(S_2)' class='latex' />. By applying Knaster-Tarski theorem, we have a fixpoint <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X_1' title='X_1' class='latex' /> with the desired properties. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CBox&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Box' title='\Box' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Finally, with the help of the above fact we could decompose the domain and codomains of injections <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f+%3A+A+%5Crightarrow+B&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f : A \rightarrow B' title='f : A \rightarrow B' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g+%3A+B+%5Crightarrow+A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g : B \rightarrow A' title='g : B \rightarrow A' class='latex' />, and thus we have two bijections <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f+%7C_%7BA_1%7D+%3A+A_1+%5Crightarrow+B_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f |_{A_1} : A_1 \rightarrow B_1' title='f |_{A_1} : A_1 \rightarrow B_1' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g+%7C_%7BB_2%7D+%3A+B_2+%5Crightarrow+A_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g |_{B_2} : B_2 \rightarrow A_2' title='g |_{B_2} : B_2 \rightarrow A_2' class='latex' /> where <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A+%3D+A_1+%5Ccup+A_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A = A_1 \cup A_2' title='A = A_1 \cup A_2' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cemptyset+%3D+A_1+%5Ccap+A_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\emptyset = A_1 \cap A_2' title='\emptyset = A_1 \cap A_2' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=B_1+%5Ccap+B_2+%3D+%5Cemptyset&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='B_1 \cap B_2 = \emptyset' title='B_1 \cap B_2 = \emptyset' class='latex' />, and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=B+%3D+B_1+%5Ccup+B_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='B = B_1 \cup B_2' title='B = B_1 \cup B_2' class='latex' />. Then, define <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h+%3D+%28f%7C_%7BA_1%7D%29+%5Ccup+%28g%7C_%7BB_2%7D%29%5E%7B-1%7D+%3A+A+%5Crightarrow+B&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h = (f|_{A_1}) \cup (g|_{B_2})^{-1} : A \rightarrow B' title='h = (f|_{A_1}) \cup (g|_{B_2})^{-1} : A \rightarrow B' class='latex' /> which is obviously bijective. Done.</p>
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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading">Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem</h1>
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Posted in Mathematics Tagged: order theory <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gocomments/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/comments/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godelicious/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/delicious/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gostumble/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/stumble/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godigg/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/digg/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/goreddit/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/reddit/xcycl.wordpress.com/1001/" /></a> <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=1001&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" /></div>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>烏龜游泳意外迅速</title>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 27 Oct 2009 22:00:47 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[離開台灣即將兩個禮拜，好像沒什麼不一樣，但一切都已經改變了我曉得。對著鏡頭看到的畫面，可能是一年後才有機會再觸摸的，而在這邊的一切，則是我一直追求的另外一半。
雖然待的科系是 Computer Science，但是主題其實很數學很邏輯，正在看得論文是有關於近代 Stone duality 的發展，人們試圖從古典的結果，推廣到近代新的工具上面一旦完成，就會有個統一的理論串起所有古典定理的變形。並且能夠模組化地取得須要的邏輯系統。使用的工具基本上是近三四十年來發展的東西，Category theory 以及數學上經典的工具：代數以及拓樸。我光是在看這之間的函子跟範疇間對偶來對偶去的，就快要昏頭了。
不過很美的是，空間跟代數結構兩者之間，竟然在範疇論的意義下互為對偶相等。
我好像要接觸這領域稍嫌年輕而且學得還不夠，但在這種動力之下，好像什麼都學得特別快，洗個澡就順便畫出 adjunction 了。站著似乎血液循環比較好。希望速度夠快能夠讓我有些進度。
Posted in 閒聊       <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=998&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>離開台灣即將兩個禮拜，好像沒什麼不一樣，但一切都已經改變了我曉得。對著鏡頭看到的畫面，可能是一年後才有機會再觸摸的，而在這邊的一切，則是我一直追求的另外一半。</p>
<p>雖然待的科系是 Computer Science，但是主題其實很數學很邏輯，正在看得論文是有關於近代 Stone duality 的發展，人們試圖從古典的結果，推廣到近代新的工具上面一旦完成，就會有個統一的理論串起所有古典定理的變形。並且能夠模組化地取得須要的邏輯系統。使用的工具基本上是近三四十年來發展的東西，Category theory 以及數學上經典的工具：代數以及拓樸。我光是在看這之間的函子跟範疇間對偶來對偶去的，就快要昏頭了。</p>
<p>不過很美的是，空間跟代數結構兩者之間，竟然在範疇論的意義下互為對偶相等。</p>
<p>我好像要接觸這領域稍嫌年輕而且學得還不夠，但在這種動力之下，好像什麼都學得特別快，洗個澡就順便畫出 adjunction 了。站著似乎血液循環比較好。希望速度夠快能夠讓我有些進度。</p>
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		<slash:comments>0</slash:comments>
	
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			<media:title type="html">xcycl</media:title>
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		<title>近日概況</title>
		<link>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/09/19/%e8%bf%91%e6%97%a5%e6%a6%82%e6%b3%81/</link>
		<comments>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/09/19/%e8%bf%91%e6%97%a5%e6%a6%82%e6%b3%81/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Sep 2009 19:27:53 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>XOO</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[閒聊]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://xcycl.wordpress.com/?p=996</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Ph.D at University of Birmingham 申請上了，領域是 theoretical computer science 中的 coalgebraic logic，有獎學金大概夠活還能存一點錢。希望能夠順利畢業，做出東西來。申請的過程，不知該說順利還是不順利，三月底決定今年出去，中間不到一個月準備 IELTS 考完試中間還準備了申請 Oxford 的資料(4/15截止)，考完之後也只剩下兩個多禮拜整理資料，連間代辦都沒找，就這樣莽莽撞撞地申請。申請四間學校中，有兩間其實已經過期限，Oxford 慘到推薦信到了四月底才寄到，結果對方就說沒獎學金了，帶可以面試看看；另外一間則是面試前準備不周，拿到了錄取卻沒有獎學金，只好忍痛放棄。其他一間也是沒錢被拒絕，還有一間也是沒錢但是仍掛在上面。
結束這四間之後，考慮了一下決定把手上的問題再繼續推進看看，結果做一做發現是有一部分是數學分析問題，評估一下時間跟資源，要有所進展得花比較久的時間。恰好有教授轉寄資訊給我，Birmingham 正在找 Ph.D 過去。但一開始看到 EU/UK applicants only 的時候幾乎是萬念俱灰，硬著頭皮問問看，拿到計畫的內容看了一下，發現整個研究計畫得重寫才行。
又恰好，該教授又離開系上，大約有一個月的時間才會回來，趁這時候把該看的論文跟資料很快的看過，還找了相關的介紹性文章寫完習題，用  寫了7頁的研究計畫，很幸運地拿到錄取。而獎學金的部份，也剛好有上次電話面試的經驗，以及剛好人在北京，有些比較充裕的時間，針對面試可能的題目練習了幾天。
結束面試之後，原本以為很快就會答覆，因為他在 skype 中說這兩天就會決定，但一直都沒有下文，焦慮到半夜三點坐在中研院行政大樓旁的馬路，不斷地檢查信箱。隔天一早，寫了一封信給教授，我想態度應該是不亢不卑地表達意願，晚上就很順利地拿到獎學金通知了。
有一種註定要去 Birmingham 的感覺，前面的經驗促成這次的申請契機，並且有經驗跟膽量知道該怎麼應對寫信。第一次寫信給 Nottingham 的時候弄了一個晚上，擔心對方不回應，結果一直都沒回信。所以接下來都是十分鐘簡短地寫兩段，對方也很快就回應了。
嘛，這就是人生吧。
接下來把該補背景知識趕快補起來，一邊推進論文的進度，看我在計畫中想的能不能實現。而且要準備申請國內的乙類留學獎學金，衝啊。
Posted in 閒聊       <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=996&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>Ph.D at University of Birmingham 申請上了，領域是 theoretical computer science 中的 coalgebraic logic，有獎學金大概夠活還能存一點錢。希望能夠順利畢業，做出東西來。<span id="more-996"></span>申請的過程，不知該說順利還是不順利，三月底決定今年出去，中間不到一個月準備 IELTS 考完試中間還準備了申請 Oxford 的資料(4/15截止)，考完之後也只剩下兩個多禮拜整理資料，連間代辦都沒找，就這樣莽莽撞撞地申請。申請四間學校中，有兩間其實已經過期限，Oxford 慘到推薦信到了四月底才寄到，結果對方就說沒獎學金了，帶可以面試看看；另外一間則是面試前準備不周，拿到了錄取卻沒有獎學金，只好忍痛放棄。其他一間也是沒錢被拒絕，還有一間也是沒錢但是仍掛在上面。</p>
<p>結束這四間之後，考慮了一下決定把手上的問題再繼續推進看看，結果做一做發現是有一部分是數學分析問題，評估一下時間跟資源，要有所進展得花比較久的時間。恰好有教授轉寄資訊給我，Birmingham 正在找 Ph.D 過去。但一開始看到 <strong>EU/UK applicants only</strong> 的時候幾乎是萬念俱灰，硬著頭皮問問看，拿到計畫的內容看了一下，發現整個研究計畫得重寫才行。</p>
<p>又恰好，該教授又離開系上，大約有一個月的時間才會回來，趁這時候把該看的論文跟資料很快的看過，還找了相關的介紹性文章寫完習題，用 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CLaTeX&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\LaTeX' title='\LaTeX' class='latex' /> 寫了7頁的研究計畫，很幸運地拿到錄取。而獎學金的部份，也剛好有上次電話面試的經驗，以及剛好人在北京，有些比較充裕的時間，針對面試可能的題目練習了幾天。</p>
<p>結束面試之後，原本以為很快就會答覆，因為他在 skype 中說這兩天就會決定，但一直都沒有下文，焦慮到半夜三點坐在中研院行政大樓旁的馬路，不斷地檢查信箱。隔天一早，寫了一封信給教授，我想態度應該是不亢不卑地表達意願，晚上就很順利地拿到獎學金通知了。</p>
<p>有一種註定要去 Birmingham 的感覺，前面的經驗促成這次的申請契機，並且有經驗跟膽量知道該怎麼應對寫信。第一次寫信給 Nottingham 的時候弄了一個晚上，擔心對方不回應，結果一直都沒回信。所以接下來都是十分鐘簡短地寫兩段，對方也很快就回應了。</p>
<p>嘛，這就是人生吧。</p>
<p>接下來把該補背景知識趕快補起來，一邊推進論文的進度，看我在計畫中想的能不能實現。而且要準備申請國內的乙類留學獎學金，衝啊。</p>
Posted in 閒聊  <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gocomments/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/comments/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godelicious/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/delicious/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gostumble/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/stumble/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godigg/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/digg/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/goreddit/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/reddit/xcycl.wordpress.com/996/" /></a> <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=996&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" /></div>]]></content:encoded>
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		<slash:comments>0</slash:comments>
	
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			<media:title type="html">xcycl</media:title>
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		<title>KKBox &#8230;</title>
		<link>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/09/09/kkbox/</link>
		<comments>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/09/09/kkbox/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 08 Sep 2009 16:23:23 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>XOO</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[閒聊]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://xcycl.wordpress.com/?p=990</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[之前聽台北愛樂，很討厭他們的廣告，轉去聽 BBC radio 3，結果今天中午不知道怎樣連不上，一直回報我的頻寬不夠；連院內的 NAXOS 資料庫也只限定某兩個所才能用，極其絕望之下想到還有 KKBox ，試聽 30 秒之後就把信用卡拿出來結帳刷了一個月。曲子雖然不完整，但是選擇的範圍還頗大的，討厭 DRM 還是買來用了 &#8230;
塑膠貨幣真是害人不淺 &#8230; 囧。
Posted in 閒聊       <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=990&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>之前聽台北愛樂，很討厭他們的廣告，轉去聽 BBC radio 3，結果今天中午不知道怎樣連不上，一直回報我的頻寬不夠；連院內的 NAXOS 資料庫也只限定某兩個所才能用，極其絕望之下想到還有 KKBox ，試聽 30 秒之後就把信用卡拿出來結帳刷了一個月。曲子雖然不完整，但是選擇的範圍還頗大的，討厭 DRM 還是買來用了 &#8230;<span id="more-990"></span></p>
<p>塑膠貨幣真是害人不淺 &#8230; 囧。</p>
Posted in 閒聊  <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gocomments/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/comments/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godelicious/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/delicious/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gostumble/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/stumble/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godigg/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/digg/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/goreddit/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/reddit/xcycl.wordpress.com/990/" /></a> <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=990&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" /></div>]]></content:encoded>
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			<media:title type="html">xcycl</media:title>
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		<title>北京的交通</title>
		<link>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/09/01/%e5%8c%97%e4%ba%ac%e7%9a%84%e4%ba%a4%e9%80%9a/</link>
		<comments>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/09/01/%e5%8c%97%e4%ba%ac%e7%9a%84%e4%ba%a4%e9%80%9a/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 01 Sep 2009 14:44:57 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>XOO</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[閒聊]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://xcycl.wordpress.com/?p=981</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[這邊捷運叫做地鐵（其實大部份的地方也都叫 subway），從路線圖來看目前總共有 123 個站包括重複的轉運站，在四環（以故宮天安門為中心的環狀道路）以內，配合公交車（公車）大概沒什麼地方去不了。2015 年的規劃圖來看的話，大概喊得出名字的地方以後都去得了。另外，從首都國際機場內，就有機場地鐵直達其中十號線的三元橋站跟二號線東直門站，再轉車出去還滿方便的。除了等車的時間較長，但是速度大概是最快的一個。
費用的話，地鐵不限距離，統一價 2RMB；機場地鐵則是 25RMB；公交車投現 1RMB，用一卡通則是0.4RMB，依照路線不同售價不大一樣。北京的物價跟台北差不了多少，但是換算成台幣來看，便宜的很。使用率頗高，每次去大概都擠滿滿的。計程車起價 10RMB，比台灣便宜滿多的，路上也很好招到。
在這邊雖然汽車很多，但我發現這邊沒有機車，只有電動腳踏車，就是可以充電也可以用腳踩發電的，沒有廢氣問題。在市中心部份的公交車，是用電纜驅動，也沒有廢氣&#8230;&#8230;..。實際上在北京的街頭感覺空氣比台北好很多，查資料才寫以前受空氣污染影響很大，現在做得倒挺好的。台北市街頭的空氣品質則是不敢領教 &#8230;&#8230;
我只能說，台灣要多加油 &#8230;
Posted in 閒聊       <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=981&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>這邊捷運叫做地鐵（其實大部份的地方也都叫 subway），從路線圖來看目前總共有 123 個站包括重複的轉運站，在四環（以故宮天安門為中心的環狀道路）以內，配合公交車（公車）大概沒什麼地方去不了。2015 年的規劃圖來看的話，大概喊得出名字的地方以後都去得了。另外，從首都國際機場內，就有機場地鐵直達其中十號線的三元橋站跟二號線東直門站，再轉車出去還滿方便的。除了等車的時間較長，但是速度大概是最快的一個。</p>
<p>費用的話，地鐵不限距離，統一價 2RMB；機場地鐵則是 25RMB；公交車投現 1RMB，用一卡通則是0.4RMB，依照路線不同售價不大一樣。北京的物價跟台北差不了多少，但是換算成台幣來看，便宜的很。使用率頗高，每次去大概都擠滿滿的。計程車起價 10RMB，比台灣便宜滿多的，路上也很好招到。</p>
<p>在這邊雖然汽車很多，但我發現這邊沒有機車，只有電動腳踏車，就是可以充電也可以用腳踩發電的，沒有廢氣問題。在市中心部份的公交車，是用電纜驅動，也沒有廢氣&#8230;&#8230;..。實際上在北京的街頭感覺空氣比台北好很多，查資料才寫以前受空氣污染影響很大，現在做得倒挺好的。台北市街頭的空氣品質則是不敢領教 &#8230;&#8230;</p>
<p>我只能說，台灣要多加油 &#8230;</p>
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		<title>Asian-Pacific Summer School on Formal Methods</title>
		<link>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/08/31/asian-pacific-summer-school-on-formal-methods/</link>
		<comments>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/08/31/asian-pacific-summer-school-on-formal-methods/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 31 Aug 2009 14:07:08 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>XOO</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[閒聊]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[下午剛結束在北京輕學大學的暑期課程之旅，來之前記得最原始 Coq Summer School，但後來叫做 Asian-Pacific Summer School on Formal Methods，顧名思義以正規方法來處理軟體的問題為主，講師們都從法國 INRIA 來。題材前半段集中在 Coq 本身，以及相關的題材，像是 dependent type, inductive type, coinductive type, Curry-Howard isomorphism。後半段則是以互動式定理證明跟自動證明器應用在程式語言的檢驗，像是 why tool , frama-C 能夠用來處理 Objective ML, 甚至是 Java, C 語言的正確性。最後則是說明將來還有哪些問題要處理的。總共 8.5 天，其中一天結束 Coq 的材料，去清華校園隔壁的頤和園逛逛。
整體來說，相當驚人的暑期課程。先從費用來看，學生是 100 人民幣包含了住宿，三餐（儲值80元的餐卡），課本 Coq&#8217;Art中文版，Coq Live USB（2GB的USB隨身碟上裝好 Ubuntu 跟 Coq ），一件衣服，完整的 INRIA 師資群。算下來，實際上得到的比 100 還要多很多。
課程方面相當緊湊扎實，我不曉得到底有沒有預設背景知識，但是作業從 functional programming 到定理證明以及用 Hoare logic [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=978&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>下午剛結束在北京輕學大學的暑期課程之旅，來之前記得最原始 Coq Summer School，但後來叫做 Asian-Pacific Summer School on Formal Methods，顧名思義以正規方法來處理軟體的問題為主，講師們都從法國 INRIA 來。<span id="more-978"></span>題材前半段集中在 Coq 本身，以及相關的題材，像是 dependent type, inductive type, coinductive type, Curry-Howard isomorphism。後半段則是以互動式定理證明跟自動證明器應用在程式語言的檢驗，像是 why tool , frama-C 能夠用來處理 Objective ML, 甚至是 Java, C 語言的正確性。最後則是說明將來還有哪些問題要處理的。總共 8.5 天，其中一天結束 Coq 的材料，去清華校園隔壁的頤和園逛逛。</p>
<p>整體來說，相當驚人的暑期課程。先從費用來看，學生是 100 人民幣包含了住宿，三餐（儲值80元的餐卡），課本 Coq&#8217;Art中文版，Coq Live USB（2GB的USB隨身碟上裝好 Ubuntu 跟 Coq ），一件衣服，完整的 INRIA 師資群。算下來，實際上得到的比 100 還要多很多。</p>
<p>課程方面相當緊湊扎實，我不曉得到底有沒有預設背景知識，但是作業從 functional programming 到定理證明以及用 Hoare logic 描述 insertion sort 並用證明器證明，作業非常多。好在講師全程參與，所以上機實做的課程，敢問都能夠得到不錯的回應。純上課的話，我個人習慣自己念，常常上到打瞌睡就是了，下午實做精神就好多了 &#8230; orz.</p>
<p>參加的同學以中國各地為主，有好一些人都是教授老師等級，中科院的來了不少，還有的是教授帶著自己的學生一起來上課，學習相當勤奮啊。另外有三個韓國人，不過沒有聊過，不曉得來歷如何，但是光看外表我想也差不多是教授級了吧 &#8230;；台灣來的好像只有我這麼一個，還好都很好相處，比台灣人還熱情（大概跟台灣人對外國人一樣熱情了 &#8230;），第二天晚上就有伴了。一直以為自己的社交工程不及格，不過看起來還可以。</p>
<p>語言方面問題比較大，習慣英式美式標準腔調，法國人的腔調不適應，一開始不好進入狀況。原本以為是英文退步，但最後在講 smart card 的應用時，講師的口音比較標準，邊寫程式邊聽都沒問題，顯然是腔調無法適應。這點跟中國學生聊天的時候也一樣，一來用語不大一樣腔調各異，常常也是有聽沒有懂，要一直講才比較好。（但是換個人聊又聽不大懂了 &#8230;）</p>
<p>不過教學設備上，個人對於投影機直接投在白色牆面上有些感冒，色彩失真不說，反射面的效果頗差，其實看得不是很清楚，再加上後期到大教室上課，可視角度不變，但是前後距離變遠，反而看得不是很清楚，如果要用電腦坐在兩旁或是後面，或者試用到白板解說，&#8230; 位置角度不好完全看不到。</p>
<p>課程本身的規劃設計不錯，連貫性很好，沒有評分壓力比較小，比較能夠享受上課以及解問題的樂趣。但教學方面，如果有以中文為主的助教幫忙學習上的問題，可能會更好，我看滿多人有問題不敢問，相當可惜。中間應該在穿插一整天的休息，有不少人連上了六七天，最後就蹺課去溜達玩玩去了。到後面我也有點疲憊了，每天的作息就是七點多起床，吃早餐，去上課，中午吃飯休息，下午上機寫習題，晚上吃晚餐，回去想下午的問題，然後睡覺，再加上來之前沒日沒夜的趕申請學校的 research proposal ，一連好幾天下來有點疲乏。</p>
<p>最後徵博士生做的問題，不巧都沒啥興趣，一開始看的是 SSReflect 要作 simple group 的分類問題的正規證明，剛好不在這次的徵選範圍之內，再加上 Coq 的語法讓我很痛苦（跟 Agda 比較起來），暫時打消問細節的意願。另外就是 Coq 上發展一套給 rewriting system 驗證 termination proofs 的 library，給其他的 prover 作為基礎。看起來是比較有意思的，跟其中的研究員討論一下留個名片之後，還在看看細節中。</p>
<p>題外話，總覺得應該印個名片一下 &#8230;我到這邊來交換個人資料的場合挺多的，每次都寫給別人真怕哪邊寫錯就聯絡不到了 囧。</p>
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		<title>Coinductive Proof ?</title>
		<link>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/07/31/coinductive-proof/</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 31 Jul 2009 09:19:09 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>XOO</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Computer Science]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[coalgebra]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[正在看 Coq&#8217;Art 最後的 Infinite Objects and Proofs，順便玩一下 coinductive type 到底在 Coq 跟 Agda 這種基於 constructive type theory 的語言到底是怎麼回事，用 Agda 內建的  Data.Conat 寫下了幾個證明。先定義 bisimilar relation：
data _≈_ : (n m : Coℕ) → Set where
zero : zero ≈ zero
suc  : ∀ {n m} (p : ∞ (♭ n ≈ ♭ m)) → suc n ≈ suc [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=954&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>正在看 Coq&#8217;Art 最後的 Infinite Objects and Proofs，順便玩一下 coinductive type 到底在 Coq 跟 Agda 這種基於 constructive type theory 的語言到底是怎麼回事，用 Agda 內建的  <code>Data.Conat</code> 寫下了幾個證明。先定義 bisimilar relation：<span id="more-954"></span></p>
<p><code>data _≈_ : (n m : Coℕ) → Set where<br />
zero : zero ≈ zero<br />
suc  : ∀ {n m} (p : ∞ (♭ n ≈ ♭ m)) → suc n ≈ suc m</code></p>
<p>很直觀的定義沒什麼好說的。</p>
<p><code>∞+∞ : ∞ℕ + ∞ℕ ≈ ∞ℕ<br />
∞+∞ = suc (♯ ∞+∞)</code></p>
<p><code>∞ℕ</code> 的定義在 stdlib 裡頭，其實很簡單，就是用 <code>suc</code> 一直串下去。然後我們也可以定義有序關係，就像這樣：</p>
<p><code>data _≤_ : (n m : Coℕ) → Set where<br />
z≤n : ∀ {n} → zero ≤ n<br />
s≤s : ∀ {n m} → (∞ (♭ n ≤ ♭ m)) → suc n ≤ suc m</code></p>
<p>在 Coq 底下要用 <code>Cofix</code> 來定義，但是 Agda 底下把 <code>codata</code> 包裝起來，用<code>♯ </code>跟<code>♭</code>來互相轉成 inductive type 跟 coinductive type，不過這邊的關係我還不是很理解。接下來，既然可以描述自然數的無限大，那我們也可以證明無限大大於等於所有的自然數</p>
<p><code>n≤∞ : ∀ n → n ≤ ∞ℕ<br />
n≤∞ zero = z≤n<br />
n≤∞ (suc n) = s≤s (♯ n≤∞ (♭ n))</code></p>
<p>那麼無限大是否小於無限大呢？按照這個定義事實上是的。小於其實定義為</p>
<p><code>_&lt;_ : ∀ n m → Set<br />
_&lt;_ n m = suc (♯ n) ≤ m</code></p>
<p>也就是說，若<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%281+%2B+n%29+%5Cleq+m&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(1 + n) \leq m' title='(1 + n) \leq m' class='latex' /> 則 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3C+m&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n &lt; m' title='n &lt; m' class='latex' />。但是因為無限大定義為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cinfty+%3D+1+%2B+1+%2B+1+...+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\infty = 1 + 1 + 1 ... ' title='\infty = 1 + 1 + 1 ... ' class='latex' /> ，那麼 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1+%2B+%5Cinfty&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1 + \infty' title='1 + \infty' class='latex' /> 仍然是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cinfty&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\infty' title='\infty' class='latex' /> （在 bisimilar 的意義下），所以證明就只是</p>
<p><code>∞&lt;∞ : ∞ℕ &lt; ∞ℕ<br />
∞&lt;∞ = s≤s (♯ refl′)</code></p>
<p>其中 <code>refl′ </code>是證明該有序關係是 reflexive 的。不過雖然 conductive type 處理 infinite object 看起來很威，但是遇到實際上是有限的資料，可就威不起來了 &#8230;</p>
<p><code>lem₁ : fromℕ 3 + fromℕ 4 ≈ fromℕ 7<br />
lem₁ = suc (♯ suc (♯ suc (♯ refl)))</code></p>
<p>這是一個 3 + 4 = 7 的證明，在 inductive 的情況下，可以直接根據 reduction rule 算出 3 + 4 等於 7，進而簡化命題成為 7 = 7，直接就可以證明。但在 coinductive  下，要維持 strongly normalizing property，必須有限制地展開，所以像是 <code>fromℕ 2</code> 只會展開成 <code>suc (fromℕ 1) 而不是 suc (♯ suc (♯ zero)) </code>。所以證明就是把 <code>fromℕ 3</code> 一直展開，一直得到 <code>0 + fromℕ 4 ≈ fromℕ 4 </code>為止，在 Coq 底下應該還要再使加法的部份再展開一次，但在 Agda 因為是包在 inductive type 裡頭，就直接把<code> 0 + x </code>展開為 <code>x</code> 了。我需要再練習一下 coinductive，邊看 modal logic 邊寫起來好了 :p</p>
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		<title>歸謬證法反證法？</title>
		<link>http://xcycl.wordpress.com/2009/07/01/%e6%ad%b8%e8%ac%ac%e8%ad%89%e6%b3%95%e5%8f%8d%e8%ad%89%e6%b3%95%ef%bc%9f/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 30 Jun 2009 16:54:31 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>XOO</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[閒聊]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[反證法是指用 RAA, 或是證明否逆命命題, 或是排中律證明的。而用 law of contradiction 並不是反證法，因為在構造式證明中， Law of contradiction  是成立的，而 RAA 則是構造式證明中唯一被拿掉的公設。證明如下：
對於 Law of contradiction，我們可以用 conjunction elimination, implication 推出來，不需要其他的條件：
0.  by assumption
1. , by conjunction elimination from 0.
2. , by conjunction elimination from 0.
3. , by modus ponens from 1. 2.
4. , by conditional proof discharging (1)
而另外一種反證法的形式，講的是 ，跟 RAA 是 tautology，先證明 RAA [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=xcycl.wordpress.com&blog=46314&post=851&subd=xcycl&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>反證法是指用 RAA, 或是證明否逆命命題, 或是排中律證明的。而用 law of contradiction 並不是反證法，因為在構造式證明中， Law of contradiction <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+%28P+%5Cwedge+%5Cneg+P%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg (P \wedge \neg P)' title='\neg (P \wedge \neg P)' class='latex' /> 是成立的，而 RAA 則是構造式證明中唯一被拿掉的公設。證明如下：<span id="more-851"></span></p>
<p>對於 Law of contradiction，我們可以用 conjunction elimination, implication 推出來，不需要其他的條件：<br />
0. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P+%5Cwedge+%5Cneg+P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P \wedge \neg P' title='P \wedge \neg P' class='latex' /> by assumption<br />
1. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P' title='P' class='latex' />, by conjunction elimination from 0.<br />
2. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+P+%5Cequiv+P+%5Crightarrow+%5Cbot&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg P \equiv P \rightarrow \bot' title='\neg P \equiv P \rightarrow \bot' class='latex' />, by conjunction elimination from 0.<br />
3. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbot&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\bot' title='\bot' class='latex' />, by modus ponens from 1. 2.<br />
4. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P+%5Cwedge+%5Cneg+P+%5Crightarrow+%5Cbot+%5Cequiv+%5Cneg+%28P+%5Cwedge+%5Cneg+P%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P \wedge \neg P \rightarrow \bot \equiv \neg (P \wedge \neg P)' title='P \wedge \neg P \rightarrow \bot \equiv \neg (P \wedge \neg P)' class='latex' />, by conditional proof discharging (1)</p>
<p>而另外一種反證法的形式，講的是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cneg+Q+%5Crightarrow+%5Cneg+P%29+%5Crightarrow+%28P+%5Crightarrow+Q%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\neg Q \rightarrow \neg P) \rightarrow (P \rightarrow Q)' title='(\neg Q \rightarrow \neg P) \rightarrow (P \rightarrow Q)' class='latex' />，跟 RAA 是 tautology，先證明 RAA 這邊開始：</p>
<p>0. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+Q&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg Q' title='\neg Q' class='latex' />, by assumption<br />
1. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+Q+%5Crightarrow+%5Cneg+P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg Q \rightarrow \neg P' title='\neg Q \rightarrow \neg P' class='latex' />, by assumption<br />
2. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P' title='P' class='latex' />, by assumption<br />
3. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+P+%5Cequiv+P+%5Crightarrow+%5Cbot&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg P \equiv P \rightarrow \bot' title='\neg P \equiv P \rightarrow \bot' class='latex' />, by modus ponens from 0. 1.<br />
4. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbot&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\bot' title='\bot' class='latex' />, by modus ponens from 2. 3.<br />
5. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+Q+%5Crightarrow+%5Cbot+%5Cequiv+%5Cneg+%5Cneg+Q&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg Q \rightarrow \bot \equiv \neg \neg Q' title='\neg Q \rightarrow \bot \equiv \neg \neg Q' class='latex' />, by discharging 0. and 4.<br />
6. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=Q&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='Q' title='Q' class='latex' />, by RAA from 5.<br />
7. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P+%5Crightarrow+Q&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P \rightarrow Q' title='P \rightarrow Q' class='latex' />, by discharging from 2. and 5.<br />
8. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cneg+Q+%5Crightarrow+%5Cneg+P%29+%5Crightarrow+%28P+%5Crightarrow+Q%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\neg Q \rightarrow \neg P) \rightarrow (P \rightarrow Q)' title='(\neg Q \rightarrow \neg P) \rightarrow (P \rightarrow Q)' class='latex' />, by discharging from 1. and 7.</p>
<p>再來是這個否逆命題推回 RAA：<br />
0. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg P' title='\neg P' class='latex' />, by assumption<br />
1. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+%5Cneg+P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg \neg P' title='\neg \neg P' class='latex' />, by assumption<br />
2. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+P+%5Crightarrow+%5Cneg+%5Cneg+P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg P \rightarrow \neg \neg P' title='\neg P \rightarrow \neg \neg P' class='latex' />, by discharging 0. and 1.<br />
3. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+P+%5Crightarrow+P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg P \rightarrow P' title='\neg P \rightarrow P' class='latex' />, by 否逆命題<br />
4. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P' title='P' class='latex' />, by MP from 0. 3.<br />
5. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cneg+%5Cneg+P+%5Crightarrow+P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\neg \neg P \rightarrow P' title='\neg \neg P \rightarrow P' class='latex' />, by discharging 1. 4.<br />
（0. 1. 應該分別假設兩次, 再各自消掉就是了）</p>
<p>所以在 meta-language 的層次上證明，RAA 與「否逆命題與原命題等價」是等價的，<span style="text-decoration:line-through;">另外 RAA 又比排中律弱，可以從排中律推到 RAA，但反過來卻不行。（排中律有多強啊 &#8230;</span> 錯了，請看下面的回覆 orz</p>
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